Seven Years War

The Seven Years War is a war between the various major powers in Europe. The purpose of the war was to fight over the dominance of this continent, while dominating the oceans and colonies. In the war the alliance of Austria, France, Sweden, Russia and Spain faced off against the combined forces of Prussia, England, Portugal and Hanover.

Background to the Seven Years War
The cause of the Seven Years War was rooted in the results of the previous conflict, the War of Austrian Succession (1740-48). The Aix-la-Chapelle Treaty which ended this war was unable to calm Austria's anger at the loss of the rich province of Silesia which was captured by Prussia. The treaty was also unable to withstand the conflicting ambitions of French and British colonialism, triggering a new, bigger battle.

Although the Seven Years War is basically a continuation of the Austrian War of Succession, there are two significant differences compared to the previous war.

The first important difference is that the Seven Years War is truly a global war, requiring a total commitment of resources and all troops. Therefore, the warring countries put all they have to keep on fighting, profit becomes secondary.

The second major difference is the definitive shift in the axis of alliance that had existed during the first half of the 18th century. Austria and Britain, longtime allies, violated their agreement and Austria sided with France which was previously its enemy. Prussia in turn severed relations with France and sided with Britain.

The main figures in the Seven Years War are Queen Maria Theresa of Austria; George II and then George III of England; Louis XV from France; Frederick II (later known as Frederick the Great) of Prussia; and Queen Elizabeth from Russia.

Strength of each country

Prussia

At the beginning of the war, Prussia had 145,000 troops and was considered the most effective in Europe in fighting linear formations. This is achieved by thorough, disciplined training.

In the period after the Austrian War of Succession, Frederick II had also reformed the heavy cavalry to become the best in Europe. The greatness of the European cavalry succeeded in causing a surprise blow to their enemies.

The Prussians had a very organized system in maintaining the stability of their army in the field. The canton system introduced in the 1720s and 1730s regularly called all able-bodied men in certain districts to be selected. The best people will proceed to regular units for compulsory military training. They will practice with a regular regiment for a year, while the rest will train with garrison regiments in the area.

English

Before the war began, Britain had around 90,000 troops. The number of troops reached nearly 150,000 during the war, but finding enough soldiers for the army was a problem in itself. To fill the ranks of the Royal Navy and local British militias, many pulled prisoners from prison. Most of the soldiers were then stationed abroad.

The greatest strength of the British army during the Seven Years' War was its ability to adapt to various conditions. When soldiers are asked to fight in North America, it becomes clear that traditional linear tactics are not suitable for fighting in heavily forested areas on the border. To be effective in the forest, soldiers must use light weapons so they can move quickly.

Russia

The strength of the Russian army is 333,000 people, divided into 174,000 field troops and the rest are militia and garrison troops. During the war, Russia usually only uses between 60,000 and 90,000 people for one campaign.

The superiority of the number of troops is Russia's biggest asset. The Russians were able to provide more reinforcements than Prussia predicted. Reforms have been arranged to improve the army, but were only implemented when the war began and showed little meaningful results at the end.

Austria

The Austrian army stood in 201,000 troops in 1756. The Austrians had formed a reform commission after the defeat of the Silesian War of 1748. Intensive training was also carried out in all branches. The strength of armed Infantry is increased, although it is still not to the same level as Prussia. To balance out Prussian fighting strength, Austria relied on a defense strategy.

French

The Seven Years War marked the lowest point for the French army in the 18th century. The number of troops numbered more than 200,000, but had poor capabilities. Low quality of leadership, lack of discipline, lackluster officers and delays in implementing the necessary reforms are the cause of this.

But there were some exceptions to the rules among the French troops in the colonies. French troops stationed in North America are border troops who are highly trained with their linear strategies. England learned from their initial defeat to implement tactics similar to their own training strategies.

French East Indian Company troops are also of high quality. In the late 1740s they used indigenous troops (Indian tribes) in linear warfare. As in North America, the British learned from the defeat and applied French theory to their own troops in the region or India.

However, the French could not strengthen their colonial power after 1758 the British Royal Navy succeeded in blocking French naval access to their own colony. At the same time, the British continued to strengthen their colony outnumbering the French.

The course of the Seven Years War
The war began in 1756 and lasted for seven years. In the early days of this war France and Austria dominated the war, so both were predicted to win the war.

However, Britain under Prime Minister Pitt the Elder soon joined Prussia. Prussian glorious victory in the battle against France at Rossbach in 1757. The victory at Rossbach marked the turning point of the war.

After winning at Rossbach, Prussia again reaped victories at Leuthen against Austria and at Zorndorf against Russia. The Prussian victory followed the British victory over France at Plassey in India and in Quebec, Canada.

In 1759, fighting intensified, marked by the victory of the Anglo-Prussian forces over the French in Minden, Germany. Meanwhile, the British navy also carve brilliant results by defeating the French fleet in the Gulf of Quiberon. The Anglo-Prussian Alliance continued to carve victory, after in 1760 the British captured Montreal, Canada.

To avenge Prussian victories, Austria and Russia increased the number of troops. The addition of these troops made Prussian troops change their war strategy to survive to withstand the onslaught of these troops.

Prussia was almost destroyed, but was saved by the death of Russian Tsarina, Elizabeth, who died in 1762. The new Tsar Peter III pulled Russia out of war and left Prussia and Austria facing each other to fight over Silesia and Saxony.

The Prussians were able to achieve excellence in both provinces. But the war never reached its final destination, because both parties were exhausted and had run out of war resources. Peace becomes the only way that can be taken. Therefore, an Austrian envoy arrived to open peace negotiations on November 29, 1762.

Elsewhere, with the rise of George III to the English throne in 1760, British strategy began to change. George III paid more attention to the war in the colony and less concerned with the war in Germany.

In October 1761, the alliance of the British government William Pitt and the Duke of Newcastle who had promoted a joint colonial / continental war officially ended. Lord Bute became chief minister and the British began to leave Prussia both politically and financially.

Initially the two countries had agreed not to negotiate with any party unless agreed, but Britain violated this agreement when they began submitting negotiations to France. The British attitude caused a serious rift between Prussia and England.

End of the Seven Years War

The Seven Years War finally ended with two separate peace treaties. First, the Paris Agreement, involving Great Britain, France, and Spain and was signed on February 10, 1763. Under its conditions, Britain obtained Canada, Cape Breton Island, Newfoundland, the Ohio River valley, and all lands east of the Mississippi River.

France relinquished all claims to New France by receiving rewards for only two islands off the coast of Newfoundland, St. Pierre and Miquelon. France also accepts Martinique, Guadeloupe and Marie Galante in the Caribbean, while Britain maintains Grenada and all Lesser Antilles except St. Lucia.

Britain was also the dominant European power in the Carnatic and Bengal regions of India, while Pondicherry was returned to France. Belle Isle (off the coast of France) was given back to France in return for the Minorca region and Britain returned Goree in West Africa in return for Senegal.

France also agreed to evacuate all of George III's territory in Germany and its allies. Britain returned Cuba and the Philippines to Spain as a substitute for Florida and withdrawal from Portugal.

Austria and Prussia signed the Hubertusburg Peace Treaty on February 15, 1763. All 1756 borders were restored. Austria withdrew from Silesia and Prussia withdrew from Saxony. Silesia remained a part of Prussia and the division of Prussia as a state did not occur. In fact the outcome of the war actually strengthened Prussia's role as a major European power.

Biography of Ludwig van Beethoven

Ludwig van Beethoven is one of the greatest composers in the history of European classical music. His music includes the transition between classical and romantic styles. His work is even more remarkable considering that the works were completed when he lost his hearing function. Although the last thirty years of his life experienced hearing problems, but did not stop his steps to produce extraordinary symphonies.

Youth and Family Ludwig van Beethoven

Ludwig van Beethoven was born on December 16, 1770 in Bonn, Germany and was baptized the next day. However his date of birth is still being debated because no official documents were found, but the majority believes December 16 is the day of his birth.

His mother's name was Maria Magdalena van Beethoven, a woman who was very serious and determined. His father, Johan van Beethoven, or his grandfather worked as palace singers for archbishop Bonn.

Unfortunately, Beethoven's father was an alcoholic. He tried to increase family income by showing off his second son, Ludwig, as a prodigy. Nevertheless the effort was not successful.

Unlike Mozart, Beethoven's genius took a while to fully develop. In addition to getting music lessons from his father, when he was nine years old, he also received music composing lessons from Christian Gottlo Neefe, Boon palace organ player.

Furthermore, Beethoven became an official organist assistant at the age of 14 years. During this period, Beethoven traveled to Vienna and possibly met Mozart and played music for him. However, on the way there was news that his mother had fallen ill with tuberculosis and he was forced to return to Boon when his mother died.

Journey to the Peak of Fame

After his mother died, Beethoven now became the backbone of the family, mainly because his father was increasingly unable. He also began working as a player when in the palace orchestra and the local theater. In addition, he also worked as a music teacher for children of nobility.

His position enabled him to meet many influential scientists, including the aristocratic Count Ferdinand Waldstein, an expert musician who became a friend and patron. Thanks to Waldstein's help, Beethoven was able to go back to Vienna to learn from the famous composer Joseph Hadyn. He left Boon in 1792 and spent the rest of his life Vienna.

In Vienna, Beethoven impressed the various salons and aristocrats at the place by his virtuoso appearance on the piano. He also performed everywhere and was considered a champion in terms of improvisation, even compared to Mozart.

His compositions at that time included a number of piano sonatas, variations, and concerto. The first two symphonies show the influence of the heretics admired, Mozart and Haydn.

Hearing Loss and Beethoven's Career Peak
In the midst of a rising career, Beethoven contracted Tinnitus in 1798. Tinnitus is a terrible disease for a composer, because it causes the sufferer to slowly become deaf and completely lose his hearing function.

With this terrible illness Beethoven experienced a bad mood and emotional shock. Beethoven had a difficult relationship and he never married.

Despite this, in the following years Beethoven still tried to continue working. He composed a number of important piano works. The compositions are brilliant and beautiful.

Even so, the deafness that he experienced increasingly became and can no longer be ignored. He was almost hopeless and perhaps realized that his career as a virtuoso was over. Therefore, he began to focus on composing songs.

In the midst of his illness, he produced a series of extraordinary works. Symphony no. 3 presented to his idol hero, Napoleon Bonaporte, marked the beginning of his masterpiece. However, when Napoleon declared himself emperor in 1804, the disappointed composer abolished the offering. The symphony was finally published in 1806 under the new title Sinfonia Eroica.

Beethoven continued his creation by producing many compositions, including Waldstein piano sonata and Appasionata; Fourth Piano Concerto; Razumovsky Quartet and Violin Concerto; and also the first and only opera that he produced, Fideho.

Symphony no. 4 and 5 were then published in this period, with no. 5 becomes an important point of musical originality. The opening of this symphony is very famous until now. Next comes the symphony no. 6, known as Pastoral, in which wind instruments mimic the sounds of local rural birds, followed by symphony no. 7 and 8 which marked the peak of their productivity period.

End of Beethoven's Life
In the last years of his life, Beethoven did not compose much because now he is totally deaf. Beethoven's late period works (since 1815), were marked by increasing intimacy and emotional power.


His final piano sonatas, opus 109, 110 and 111 are extraordinary works of virtuoso with complexity in perfect harmony with lyricalism.

On the other hand, Symphony No. 9, the great work created in 1823, exploded with the last movement, Ode to Joy. The movement featured full choir and passionate solo singers.

His last string quartet was completed in 1826, which coincided with Beethoven's nephew who was also his guardian. One year later he was attacked by pneumonia and the appearance of cirrhosis of the liver which caused his death on March 26, 1827 at the age of 56 years.

Beethoven was buried with an extraordinary ceremony in Vienna. A ceremony suitable for composers who have been famous throughout Europe. Until now, his name is coupled with the ranks of great composers of his time or other times.

Bangladeshi History

Bangladesh is one of the largest Muslim countries located in South Asia. Before independence this country had a winding journey. Starting from becoming one with India under the British colonial government, to become part of the State of Pakistan. Although as one of the largest Muslim countries, this country has never been free from disasters and conflicts, so that poverty is inevitable.

Geographical Location of Bangladesh

The People's Republic of Bangladesh is a small country with an area of ​​144,000 square kilometers, an area that is slightly smaller than the state of Wisconsin. The country is located on the Bay of Bengal and is only bordered by two countries, India and Myanmar.

Incredibly, nearly 150 million people - half of the population of the United States, or about five times more people living throughout Canada - live in this small region. This condition creates the highest population density in the world, 2,600 people per square mile.

The Bangladeshi government realizes that its population is too high and has worked to resolve this situation. With a natural population increase of 2 percent per year, the situation is much better than in the past. Three decades ago, birth rates were almost twice as high. In 1970, the average woman would give birth to about six children; now, that number has dropped to three.

Bangladesh is also an Islamic country, with the fourth largest Muslim population in the world. Islam was brought to the country by Turks from Central Asia in the 13th century. Since its introduction several centuries ago, Islam has continued to develop. To date, 83 percent of the population is Muslim. While Hindus make up 16 percent of the population.

Bangladesh's natural conditions are not very friendly to the locals. Especially if the monsoon that brings rain arrives, Bangladeshis are very prone to flooding. The condition is worsened because most farmers and others live in lowlands that are vulnerable to flooding, so the impact of the monsoon can be very devastating.

The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) estimates that 80 million Bangladeshis are in danger due to flooding. If the earth's climate continues to warm and sea levels rise, the country's vulnerability to flooding will be far worse.

Cyclones are another natural hazard that can have an impact on Bangladeshi land and people. Tropical cyclones form at the southern end of the Bay of Bengal during the summer and then move north towards the coast of Bangladesh. This cyclone causes frequent floods and tidal waves that affect the lowlands.

Human habitat also poses a number of threats to the nation's environment. Among these are water pollution, deforestation, lack of water (during the dry season), land degradation, and a number of additional problems caused by overpopulation and poverty.

Bangladesh in the Colonial Period
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Bengal region was one of the South Asian regions included in British colonization. Bengal in 1905 was divided into two regions; West and East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh).

West Bengal which has its capital in Calcutta is more dominated by Hindus. Meanwhile, East Bengal, which is in Dhaka, is more Muslim-dominated.

However, in 1912, Britain reunited the area of ​​Bengal due to the insistence of the Hindus. Conflict was inevitable and increasingly peaked when Muslim areas in India asked to be separated from India and become an independent country. The idea received strong support from the Indian Muslim League.

While Indian Muslims began to convey the idea of ​​territorial separation, Hindus remained determined to unite. Mahatma Gandhi had tried to ease the tension between the two groups, but due to differences that were too steep the effort failed.

Finally, the British government issued the Indian Independence Act on July 14, 1947. The law separated the Indian colonial territories into two independent territories namely India and Pakistan.

Pakistan became independent on August 14, 1947, and India became independent on August 15, 1947. Chaos was inevitable.

After independence, fear for the future soon haunted the millions of Hindus who had moved to lands now separated from India. On the other hand, millions of Muslims fled their homes in India to seek security in the land of the new state of Pakistan.

Violence, riots, persecution, genocide and kidnappings occurred immediately after independence for the two new countries. An estimated 12 to 14 million people fled Pakistan or India, and more than half a million died.

Join Pakistan and fight for independence
After Pakistan gained its independence, the East Bengal region was referred to as East Pakistan. Pakistan is a country divided into two parts on opposite sides of the Indian continent. The two parts are 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) apart.

The nation's capital is in Karachi and about 90 percent of the country's wealth is concentrated in West Pakistan. Meanwhile, 90 percent of the country's population lives in East Pakistan, which is relatively poor and powerless.

Political and economic decisions made by Muhammad Ali Jinnah's government naturally favor West Pakistan.

Between the two there are also quite prominent cultural differences. One of the most prominent differences is the language used in each region. Urdu is suggested by West Pakistan to be the national language and Bengali, which is the dominant language of East Pakistan, becomes the second language.

Problems also arise, because most people in East Pakistan cannot understand Urdu. They were very angry over the political decision made by the government to adopt Urdu as the official language of the country.

In 1952, student demonstrations in East Pakistan ended violently when police killed two protesters. Two years later, East Pakistan succeeded in pressuring the Karachi government to recognize Bengali and Urdu as the official languages ​​of the country.

However, the seeds of separation between East and West Pakistan are firmly planted because of language problems.

The Muslim League became a political party after Pakistan secured its independence. However, in the 1954 election, East Pakistan rejected the Muslim League and chose to support local parties such as the Peasant and Workers Socialist Party, and the Awami League (People's League). These parties then formed a coalition that worked together to oppose the dominance of West Pakistan.

A new issue that is increasingly heating up the separation of East and West Pakistan arises, after foreign aid sent to the country was mostly given to West Pakistan and very little to East Pakistan.

In 1966, the Awami League leader, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (commonly called Mujib), issued a six-point political and economic program for East Pakistan. The main idea in the agenda is to increase East Pakistan's autonomy.

Meanwhile, President Mohammad Ayub Khan of Pakistan responded by pushing the country in the opposite direction, towards the integration of East and West Pakistan. Mujib was captured by the government in 1968.

As a result, violence, strikes and demonstrations continue. In 1969, Ayub resigned and General Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan took over control of the Pakistani government. He implemented martial law to quell chaos and violence.

The event changed unexpectedly on November 12, 1970, when a devastating typhoon struck East Pakistan. A quarter of a million people die. Two days after the typhoon, General Yahya came from Karachi to see the situation. He seemed indifferent to the problem, making the people of East Pakistan even more angry.

The political divide was evident in the December 1970 elections and West Pakistan began to move more troops to the East. At this time the political, economic and social rift between East and West has reached its peak.

General Yahya has decided to subdue East Pakistan with military use. The crackdown on military use began on March 25, 1971.

The next day on March 26, 1971, Bangladesh announced its independence from a radio station confiscated in Chittagong.

The Pakistani military continues to force East Pakistan to submit to the authority of Pakistan's central government. In fact they have prepared a list of East Pakistan leaders who must be eliminated. Hundreds of people died on the first night of heavy fighting.

On the other hand, the local people of East Pakistan recognize this as the beginning of the war for liberation. The war took many casualties in East Pakistan. Not only are the land, infrastructure, and nature damaged or destroyed, but also an estimated one million people died in nine months of fighting.

As a result of the war, eight to ten million refugees flooded India from East Pakistan. This prompted the Indian Parliament to act, condemn the Pakistani military and provide support to the rebels in Bangladesh.

The Indian army then began to invade East Pakistan on 4 December 1971 and took control of the city of Dhaka. In just 12 days the Indian Army with the help of Bangladeshi freedom fighters succeeded in repelling Pakistani troops in Bangladesh.

The Bangladesh Constitution was adopted on November 4, 1972. This constitution modeled on the Indian Constitution and created a form of parliamentary government. Mujib became the first prime minister and Dhaka became the capital of a fragile new nation.

Bangladesh Post-Independence Turmoil
After the war, Bangladesh was in a mess. Cities were destroyed, the economy was destroyed, and the population was hit by chaos due to death, rape, starvation and pillage.

The new government faces the daunting task of regaining civil authority and creating law and order. The great famine of 1974 made this situation even more urgent. The government estimates 26,000 people have died, while several international sources claim the number is approaching 1 million

In his efforts to solve the country's problems and the existing resistance to his government, Prime Minister Mujib adopted a more repressive policy.

Political parties were stopped, the media were suppressed, and personal freedom was severely restricted. He created a one-party state with himself as the ruler.

This unpopular policy finally led to efforts to bring down his government. In a coup led by young military officers, Mujib and many of his families were killed on August 15, 1975. This coup led to a period of military rule which lasted for 15 years until 1990.

Major General Ziaur Rahman served as the leader of Bangladesh from 1975 to 1981. His leadership focused on restoring law and order to a chaotic country. He also tried to form a political party and hold a general election, however there were many attempts to kill him. The last attempt was successful. In May 1981, Rahman was killed in Chittagong in a coup led by Major General Manzur Ahmed.

After a while the vice president led the country, Hussain Mohammed Ershad seized power in 1982. He assumed full control and declared martial law.

Ershad's government was hated by many Bangladeshis, because the previous government had been elected with reforms set by Rahman. In contrast, Ershad was a true military dictator.

During his reign, he made Islam the state religion and struggled to democratize the country. His rule ended when the army withdrew support from him and supported democratization. With the people and the military opposing him, Ershad resigned in December 1990

In early 1991, free elections were held and Khaleda Zia was chosen by Parliament to become prime minister. Zia is Ziaur Rahman's wife and remains very popular in this country. He served until 1996 and instituted a number of reforms in the field of education and made the country more democratic.

After his term ended, the Zia opposition, led by Sheikh Hasina Wajed, took over the government. From 1996 to 2001, Hasina served as prime minister and worked to continue the process of good governance in the country. One contribution is the improvement of health services. Zia returned as prime minister in 2001.

Bangladesh's political history can be said to have been colored with turmoil, military repression and regulation by distant authorities which have left scars in the country, but the roots of democracy are growing deeper each year. Until now the spirit of human independence and the search for freedom continue to live in the midst of difficult situations.

Bangladesh Economic Development
The economy of Bangladesh is characterized by extreme poverty and is overwhelmed by the political upheavals that often occur in the country. After independence from Britain, an estimated 20 million people were displaced, with Muslims moving from India and flooding into Bangladesh. This migration caused the country to lack housing, medical support and food.

But this problem is only the beginning of the country's economic problems. Floods, cyclones and tsunamis use up Bangladesh's economic resources. Repeated crop failures result in frequent starvation that afflicts millions of people. Political corruption and political strife undermine the government's ability to fulfill its potential in carrying out development

Rapid population growth often exceeds annual economic benefits. The high population density in the country removes potentially productive land from agricultural use. Environmental pollution is also a big problem and requires expensive costs to solve. Inadequate power, even the country became one of the countries with the lowest energy use per capita in the world

Just like other developing countries, agriculture is the main occupation of the majority of the population of Bangladesh. Nearly two-thirds of the workforce is involved in agriculture. However, agriculture only provides one fifth of the country's gross domestic product (GDP).

Agriculture in Bangladesh is a very challenging job. Most farmers work on a very small plot of land.

Very few machines are used, because of expensive equipment and cheap human labor. Adding a processing machine will drastically increase unemployment. Thus, efforts to increase production by using more tractors and other engines are not the desired solution for the country's economic struggle.

Fortunately, Bangladesh is blessed with fertile soil. Rice is very important as the main food for Bangladeshis. Grains like wheat are also an important part of food. Other main crops include hemp (fiber), tea, and tobacco.

Bangladesh is known as the world's leading jute producer, which is used to make yarn that can be woven into cloth, sacks, carpets, mats, ropes, and many other products.

In addition to agriculture, industry has become a major contributor to the wheels of the economy. Over the past few decades, manufacturing has shown considerable growth in Bangladesh, because labor is very cheap.

Low labor costs lured many foreign producers to the country. A number of U.S. companies employ low-skilled populations in Bangladesh and elsewhere in south and east Asia.

Bangladesh is also connected to the global economy through trade. In fact, the only way developed countries can progress economically is by accepting and participating in the globalization process. Because of low labor costs, Bangladesh can produce manufactured goods more cheaply than in countries where labor is more expensive.

The main export commodities of Bangladesh are clothing, hemp, leather and seafood. While they are importing some goods which include machinery and equipment, chemicals, iron and steel, textiles, food ingredients, petroleum products, and cement. Unfortunately, this country still imports more than exports and this trade deficit adds to the country's debt and poverty.

Forty-one percent of the country's products are marketed to other countries. Bangladesh's main export markets are developed countries like the United States (24.2 percent), Germany (13.2 percent), Britain (10.6 percent), France (6 percent), and Italy (4 percent).

While the import market came from China (18.7 percent), India (14.7 percent), Kuwait (8 percent), Singapore (6 percent), and Japan (4.4 percent).

Meiji Restoration

The Meiji Restoration was a political revolution in 1868 which ended the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate (military rule) and returned state power to the imperial government under Mutsuhito (Emperor Meiji)

This restoration, which began in 1868, marked the turning point of Japanese history in the modern age. Many historians compare the event with the French Revolution of 1789 and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in Russia.

Restoration leaders took a series of quick steps to build national power under capitalist institutions and quickly push Japan towards regional and world powers.

In its development the Meiji Restoration in 1868 was later identified as an era of major changes in Japan's political, economic, and social affairs. The Meiji period brought modernization and westernization in the country.

Meiji Restoration Background
Since 1603 Japan has been under the authority of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Shogun holds the highest authority of the state, whose authority is given by the kingdom. While the kingdom only holds symbolic authority like the papacy in Europe.

In this era the condition of Japan was very pathetic. Feudal rule and shogunate iron fist brought Japan into the dark ages for centuries.

Almost the same as other Asian countries, the Japanese economy at that time was still very dependent on agriculture and had very little industry. The country's economic sector was closed with international trade from 1636-1853 (only the Netherlands and China were allowed to trade).

In addition, Japanese military technology is still very backward compared to Western technology, so it is very vulnerable to colonialism.

The Japanese knew that they were far behind the West when an American commander Matthew C. Perry came to Japan in a large warship with weapons and sophisticated technology in 1853. The purpose of the US envoy was to try to make an agreement so that Japan would open up international trade. They did not hesitate to force the local authorities to make the business run smoothly.

After that event, Japanese leader Daimyō Shimazu Nariakira concluded that "if we take the initiative, we can dominate, if not, we will be dominated", which causes Japan to "open its doors to foreign technology." From then on Japan began to be open to taking technological knowledge from the West.

However, the presence of Western influence raises the pros and cons within the circle of the Japanese authorities themselves.

Some samurai revealed that they wanted the expulsion of the foreigner. Others decide that there is much they can learn from strangers and they are in a better position to expel strangers after learning knowledge from strangers. Their slogan is "Eastern Ethics, Western Science."

Satsuma and Choshu who are the shogun opposition group basically do not agree with studying some aspects of the West, but they hope that Japan can form a greater national power and not be subject to Western countries. They also expect the presence of an emperor who is able to bring Japan into a world-respected force.

Satsuma / Choshu Alliance and Boshin War 1868
In 1866, two southern Japanese daimyo regions - Hisamitsu of Satsuma Domain and Kido Takayoshi of Choshu Domain - formed an alliance against the Tokugawa Shogunate which had ruled from Tokyo on behalf of the Emperor since 1603.

Satsuma and Choshu leaders tried to overthrow the Tokugawa shogun and put Emperor Komei to the peak of power. Through the emperor, they felt they could more effectively deal with foreign threats. However, Komei died in January 1867 and his 14-year-old son Mutsuhito ascended to the throne as Emperor Meiji on February 3, 1867.

On November 19, 1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his position as the fifteenth Tokugawa shogun. His resignation officially transferred power to the young emperor, but the shogun did not relinquish the actual control of Japan easily.

When Meiji (trained by rulers Satsuma and Choshu) issued an imperial edict which dissolved the Tokugawa house, the shogun had no choice but to use weapons to fight the emperor. He sent an army of samurai to the imperial city of Kyoto, intending to capture and overthrow the emperor

On January 27, 1868, Yoshinobu's forces clashed with samurai from the Satsuma / Choshu alliance. The battle of Toba-Fushimi which lasted four days ended in a serious defeat to the Tokugawa camp as well as marking the start of the Boshin War.


The war continued until May 1869, but the emperor's army with their more modern weapons and tactics had the upper hand since the beginning of the war.

Tokugawa Yoshinobu surrendered to Saigo Takamori of Satsuma and surrendered the Edo Palace on April 11, 1869. Some more committed samurai and daimyo fought for another month in the strongholds in the north end of the country, even though the Meiji Restoration was unstoppable.

The start of the Meiji Restoration

Once his power was secure, Emperor Meiji (or rather on the advice of his advisers, former daimyo and oligarchs) began to turn Japan into a strong modern state.

The initial objectives of the new government were revealed in the Oath Charter (April 1868):

Establishment of a broad council in various regions, all important issues discussed together
All parties, above and below, must unite in carrying out state affairs.
Ordinary people, as well as central and military officials, must be allowed to do the things they want so they don't get bored.
The old bad policies were abandoned and everything was left based on natural law.
Knowledge must be sought throughout the world in order to strengthen the foundation of imperial power
The first action, taken by the new government in 1868, was to move the imperial capital from Kyōto to the Edo Shogunate capital called Tokyo ("eastern capital").

The administrative reorganization was largely completed in 1871, when the feudal areas were officially abolished and replaced by the prefectural system which still survives today. All feudal class privileges were also abolished.

In 1871 a national army was formed, which was later strengthened two years later by universal statutory law.

 In an effort to modernize the military and navy, Meiji headed to western Europe. Delegates were sent to study the European armed forces. At first they were interested in using French weaponry, but later turned to England because it was considered more sophisticated.

The Meiji government then went to England to buy their warships. Most of the Japanese Empire's warships in this early period came from British shipyards.

In the economic field, the new government implemented a policy to unify the monetary and tax system. With the agricultural tax reform of 1873 making agriculture as the country's main source of income.

To create a modern nation, Meiji and his advisers realized that a comprehensive education system was very important. In 1871 a ministry of education was created to carry out educational reforms.

One year later the government introduced the universal education system in the country, which at first modeled on Western learning. Both Japanese men and women are given the right to education.

The revolutionary changes made by the leaders of the restoration, acting on behalf of the emperor, faced challenges in the mid-1870s. The dissatisfied samurai participated in several rebellions against the government, the most famous uprising was led by former recovery hero Saigō Takamori from Satsuma.

Farmers, who did not believe in the new regime and were dissatisfied with agrarian policies, also took part in an uprising that peaked in the 1880s.

These revolts had to be extinguished with difficulty by the newly formed army.

In the same period, a popular movement driven by the introduction of liberal Western ideas emerged. Supporters of the movement are calling for the formation of a constitutional government and broader participation through deliberative assemblies. In response to this pressure, the government issued a statement in 1881 promising a law in 1890.

In 1885 a cabinet system was formed and work to form a constitution began in 1886.

Finally the Meiji Constitution which was presented as a gift from the emperor to the people was officially promulgated in 1889. The constitution formed a bicameral parliament, called (Teikoku Gikai). Teikoku Gikai was chosen through a limited vote. The first election was held the following year, 1890.

Impact of the Meiji Restoration
Economic and social changes are in line with the political transformation of the Meiji period. Although the economy is still dependent on agriculture, industrialization is the main objective of the government which directs the development of strategic industries, transportation and communication.

The first railroad was built in 1872 and by 1890 the country had 1,400 miles of railroad (2,250 km).

Telegraph network was built to connect all major cities in 1880.

Private companies were also encouraged by government financial support and assisted by European-style banking system institutions in 1882.

All these modernization efforts require Western science and technology. As a result westernization was widely promoted.

Despite this massive westerniasmation began to be tightened in the 1880s, when a new appreciation of traditional Japanese values ​​emerged. The impact, although the development of the modern education system is influenced by Western theory and practice, it still emphasizes the traditional values ​​of samurai loyalty and social harmony.

The precepts were codified in 1890 with the enactment of the Great Rescriptor for Education (Kyōiku Chokugo). The same tendency applies in art and literature, where the Western style was first emulated.

In the early 20th century, the goals of the Meiji Restoration have been largely achieved. Japan at that time moved quickly to become a modern industrial country.

An unfair treaty which had granted foreign legal and economic privileges to foreigners through extraterritorialisation was revised in 1894.

In 1902 Japan and Britain formed an alliance (Anglo-Japanese Alliance) to counter the threats posed by Russia against Britain India and the Far East, especially Japanese interests in Korea.

Japan's name is increasingly taken into account by the world after winning two wars (in China in 1894-95 and Russia in 1904-05).

The death of the Meiji emperor in 1912 marked the end of the restoration period. Despite this some important Meiji leaders were brought as old statesmen (genro) in the new regime (1912-26) of the Taishō emperor and continued to try to make Japan a major rival to Western nations.

Biography of Malcolm X

Malcolm X or also known as el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz is an African-American Muslim leader, advocate civil rights and human rights for blacks, as well as supporters of the idea of ​​Pan-African and Pan-Islamism. After his death, the spread of his autobiography made Malcolm an ideological hero, especially among black youth.

Dark Life Malcolm X

Malcolm X is real name Malcolm Little. He was born on May 19, 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska to uneducated, poor, Christian and black nationalist supporters.

He believed that the white man had killed his father and unfairly placed his mother in a mental hospital, and put himself and his siblings in a different orphanage.

At the age of fifteen, when Malcolm finished eighth grade, he realized that he hated formal education and established religious education. The dark background led him to the black world.

In these gloomy times he was nothing more than a lazy atheist. He became a drug addict and participated in illicit trafficking, gambling and robbery when he needed money.

Repentance Malcolm X
In 1946 Malcolm was sent to prison for theft. The event marked the beginning of his intellectual and social transition. Thanks to the encouragement of John Bembry, his friend in prison, he began to learn to write and read books.

The prison is a place to read Western and Eastern books of philosophy and literature, works on Christianity, genetics, and American slavery. The reading range exceeds the average reading of American undergraduate level. From his informal education he also knows the teachings of Islam and the history of Muslim heroism.

Through the encouragement of his brother Reginald and his colleagues in prison, in 1948 Malcolm turned to the doctrine of Elijah Muhammad, leader of the Nation of Islam. He was intrigued by Elijah's main doctrine that a black God would free the Arika-Americans and destroy their oppressive skin demon.

The spirit that Elijah brought was in accordance with the conditions faced by black Americans, where racial discrimination at that time was very strong.

After joining the Nation, Bliss stopped smoking and gambling and refused to eat pork. He also changed his last name from Little to X, a custom among Nation of Islam followers who thought their family name came from white slaves.

After being released from prison, Malcolm helped lead the Nation of Islam during a time of greatest growth and influence. He met with Elijah Muhammad in Chicago in 1952 and then began to arrange mosques for the Nation in New York, Philadelphia and Boston and in cities in the South.

Malcolm then founded the Nation newspaper, Muhammad Speaks, which he printed in the basement of his house. Then it initiated a practice that requires every male member of the State to sell a number of newspapers on the street as a recruiting and fundraising technique. He also articulated the Nation's racial doctrine about the evil inherent in white people and the natural superiority of black people.

Malcolm's social experience, intellectual achievements, and his dedication to leaders led him to a high position in the Nation of Islam.


At first Malcolm was appointed as the leader of the Number 11 Mosque in Boston, then in mid-1954, Malcolm was appointed by Elijah as the leader of the Number 7 Mosque in the Harlem District, New York. This mosque is the second largest mosque in the Nation after the mosque in Chicago.

In 1958, Malcolm married Betty Sanders and from this marriage he was blessed with six children.

As the Third World and US political activities continued to develop in the late 1950s and early 1960s, Malcolm increasingly dared to issue anti-racism statements. He openly supports the freedom of African-Americans, Africans and Muslims.

Even Malcolm did not hesitate to criticize Elijah's protective policies and avoidance of unnecessary contacts with Sunni Muslims.

Conflict between Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad
From 1959 onwards, Malcolm's efforts to modify Elijah's policy made his loyalty questionable.

His short visit to Saudi Arabia and African countries, as Elijah's envoy, as well as the national broadcast "The Hate That Hate Produced", further strengthened his popularity. On the other hand, however, the rising popularity caused many Nation members to envy him.

Malcolm was disappointed that Elijah Muhammad's visit to Muslim countries in 1959, as well as his Umrah, did not bring much political change to the Nation.

Malcolm gradually changed administration at the Elijah Mosque Number Seven. Despite always responding sharply to Sunni Muslim criticism of Nation's theology, he continued to teach Arabic and maintain good relations with other Muslim diplomats.

Furthermore, Malcolm began to play down the Nation's doctrine of "the nature of the devil in white and the natural superiority of blacks." He taught his assistants with African and Asian culture, and the warm problems of the period. This change shows the role of social and political activists without the restrictions they want to live.

In 1963 there was a strong tension between Malcolm and Elijah Muhammad regarding the political direction of the organization. Malcolm urged that the Nation be more active in widespread civil rights demonstrations and not just be a fringe critic.

Muhammad's violation of the Nation's code of conduct further exacerbated his relationship with Malcolm, who was devastated to learn that Muhammad was the father of the children of six of his personal secretaries. Two of them even filed a paternal complaint and made this issue public.

Malcolm brought bad publicity to the Nation when he publicly announced that the assassination of John F. Kennedy was an example of "chickens coming home to roost" (a violent society suffering from violence). In response to this provocative statement, Elijah Muhammad suspended Malcolm for 90 days and the rift between the two leaders became permanent.

Malcolm finally left the Nation in March 1964 and the following month founded the Muslim Mosque, Inc. During the pilgrimage to Mecca that same year, he underwent a second conversion and embraced Sunni Islam, adopting the Muslim name, el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz.




After leaving the Nation's theology, he claimed that the best solution to racial problems in the United States was a return to Islam based on the Koran and Hadith.

On his second visit to Africa in 1964, he spoke for the Organization of African Unity (known as the African Union since 2002), an intergovernmental group formed to promote unity, international cooperation, and economic development in Africa.

In 1965 he founded the Afro-American Union Organization as a secular vehicle to internationalize the plight of black Americans, and to move from a civil rights struggle to human rights.

The animosity that developed between Malcolm and the Nation led to death threats and violence against him. On February 21, 1965, Malcolm was killed while giving a lecture at the Audubon Ballroom in Harlem; three members of the Nation of Islam were convicted of the murder.

His struggles, ideas and lectures contributed to the development of black nationalist ideologies and Black organization movements. Malcolm also helped popularize the values ​​of autonomy and independence among Afro-Americans in the 1960s and 70s.

The Versailles Agreement

The Treaty of Versailles was the most important peace treaty which ended World War I. It was signed on June 28, 1919 at Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Although the ceasefire signed on 11 November 1918 ended the actual fighting, the Allies took six months at the Paris Peace Conference to ratify the peace agreement. The Versailles Agreement articulates the compromise reached at the conference. Among the important points achieved were restrictions on German military power and war compensation.

Countries Present at the Paris Conference
On Saturday, January 18, 1919, the Paris Peace Conference opened at the headquarters of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Paris. At least 32 allied supporters attended the conference. Peacekeepers are a diverse group. Some represent major world powers such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan. While others speak for lower powers such as Belgium, Cuba, Siam (Thailand), and Czechoslovakia.

One major power that was not present at the meeting was Russia. Although Russian troops rarely win battles, if measured from the fallen soldiers the country contributes most. From August 1914 to the end of 1917, around 1.7 million Russian troops were killed. That number is about 30 percent of all Allied troops who died in World War I.

Despite strong reasons for including Russia in the negotiations, officials of France, Britain and the United States still did not invite representatives of the new Russian government to the Paris Peace Conference.

Since the Bolsheviks overthrew the Tsar government, the Allies have seen the Bolsevhik government as a threat. To justify Russia's exclusion at the conference, Chairman of the Clemenceau Council argued that the Bolsheviks had lost their right to sit at the peace table after withdrawing from fighting at the end of 1917 and negotiating a separate peace treaty with Germany a few months later.

Besides Russia, another country not present at the conference was Germany. Initially President Wilson and Prime Minister Lloyd George had the idea of ​​inviting representatives of the government of the newly established German republic, but Clemenceau opposed the idea.

Formation of the Council of Ten
The Peace Conference in Paris was attended by 32 countries, but the most important decisions were inevitably taken by the main Allies (the United States, Britain and France) known as the Supreme Council. Out of respect for the lower powers, the main Allied Party stated that delegates from all Allied member countries recognized in the assembly could attend the weekly Plenary Conference, where issues related to the agreement would be discussed in a public forum.

Members of the Plenary Conference were also given the opportunity to form a commission entrusted to study and make recommendations on various aspects of peace settlement, such as the establishment of an international peacekeeping organization in the 14 points proposed by Wilson.

After some debate, the conference planners decided that the Supreme Council, named the Council of Ten, would consist of two representatives each from only five countries. This elite committee includes four prominent Western powers - France, Great Britain, the United States, and Italy - and one rising Eastern power - Japan.

French Targets in the Council of Ten
It is undeniable that no other country in the Council of Ten suffers more losses than France. Around 1.3 million French troops died in World War I, along with at least 400,000 French civilians. Not to mention the heavy infrastructure damage because it has been the main battleground for four years.

These conditions led Clemencau to insist on demanding Berlin to pay compensation for the losses suffered. However, there is another motive for Clemencau's ambition to weaken German power which for five decades has been a threat to France.


Based on France's past experience, Clemenceau wanted to ensure that Germany would not be strong enough to control his homeland. Therefore, he proposed severe terms of peace, so that it could weaken Germany's economy, military and territories. For Clemenceau, the ideal peace settlement not only disarmed the German navy, but also drastically reduced the number of its troops.

Next, Clemenceau wanted to reduce the size of German territory, by forcing them to release the Rhineland area, a part of Germany located west of the Rhine River. Finally, besides restoring the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine in France, Clemenceau wants the peacekeepers to add iron ore in western Germany and the coal-rich Saar Valley, as a form of compensation for hundreds of French mines and factories destroyed during the war and to forever weaken the industrial economy German.

Differences in Peace Objectives in Great Britain, Italy and Japan
Same with Clemenceau, Britain's main negotiator on the Council of Ten, Prime Minister Lloyd George, also hopes to reduce the capabilities of the German military, especially at sea. The desire came after Germany became Britain's main rival in the navy since the war had not yet begun.

Britain also wants payment of compensation from Germany. But unlike France, Lloyd George actually wants Germany to remain a viable economic power, both as a trading partner and as a force to counterbalance the Russian and French Bolsheviks. He believes that maintaining the balance of power on the continent is the best goal of British national peace and security.

Meanwhile, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, aims to strengthen his country's claim to the Austro-Hungarian territories promised by the London Treaty in 1915. Orlando never doubted that Italy deserved the spoils of war outlined in the secret Allied treaty. He considered it an appropriate compensation for the economic and human losses of the country during the war.

However, France, Britain and America were not too impressed by Italy's efforts in the war. Lloyd George and Clemenceau in particular "assumed the Italians did not fight seriously".

In addition, in January 1919, most of the new territories that Orlando wanted were no longer under Austrian or Hungarian control, including the Dalmatian coast and the Adriatic port of Fiume (now Rijeka, Croatia). Instead, the region has become part of the developing country of Yugoslavia, which was originally known as the Kingdom of Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia. The Serbs had also fought bravely during the war, so that France, Britain and America were reluctant to accommodate Italy's wishes.

Like Orlando, representatives of Japan, Sutemi Chinda and Keishiro Matsui, Tokyo's ambassadors in the United Kingdom and France, have an interest in strengthening their territorial claims. The Japanese government wants a peace conference to support the takeover of German territorial and economic rights in the northern Chinese province of Shandong, which has been occupied by Japanese troops since expelling Germany in 1914. Chinda and Matsui also hope that the Council of Ten will validate their country's claims in the province, even in the face of strong protests from China

Although Japan only took a small role in combat during World War I and suffered the fewest losses compared to other members of the Council of Ten, Britain quietly approved the takeover of Shantung in return for its naval assistance in the Mediterranean in 1917.

Points of the Versailles Agreement
Negotiations have indeed begun since January. However, the first point adopted at the conference was not the resolution of the German problem, but the formation of the League of Nations which was only completed on 28 April 1919. Therefore the issue of Germany was only raised in March 1919.

This month, many complicated issues regarding the terms of peace remain unresolved. Therefore Wilson, Lloyd George, and Clemenceau decided to streamline the decision-making mechanism of the chair of the conference, by rejecting the proposals of every other member except for these three people and Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, known as the Council of Four. Following is the resolution of the German problem set out in the Versailles Agreement:

Free German territory

Germany lost its colony and most of its own territory in the agreement: West Prussia, part of East Prussia, Schleswig, Upper Silesia, Danzig, and Memel. Alsace-Lorraine also returned to France. The newly formed League of Nations as part of the agreement, took control of the Saar region and the entire Rhineland region was occupied for 15 years.

The agreement also said that Germany could not unite with Austria. The territorial loss cut Germany's total population by 10 percent.

Military Restrictions
One of the first issues addressed by the "Council of Four" was what military resolution should be set for Germany. They were determined to prevent Germany from waging another war, so that all the members of the council wanted the agreement to suppress German military power.

In the end they left a military that looked more like a police than an army. According to the military provisions formulated by the council, German conscription must be abolished and the army limited to only 100,000 people.

German combat strength was also severely restricted after the use of military aircraft, heavy artillery, tanks or poison gas guns was banned. Only a handful of German factories were authorized to produce weapons, ammunition, and other war materials.

Every weapon shop must be destroyed immediately. Council Four also agreed that the German navy should be limited to only 15,000 people and must not have submarines. The entire German fleet itself was eventually sunk.

German Compensation Payment
According to Article 231, Germany was forced to admit mistakes because it started a war and had to pay heavy fines. The Germans call it the Article of Confession of War. The German fine is 266 Goldmark, equivalent to around 63 billion U.S. dollars. at that time.

German officials were shocked and angry when they heard the demand. Leading experts at that time also protested that payment in Germany in very large amounts could damage the global economy.

Nevertheless, France and Britain still insisted on demanding payment. The agreement includes a clause which states that Germany can be further punished if it fails to pay on time. Although Germany felt betrayed, they were forced to sign or risk greater punishment.

German Foreign Minister Hermann Muller and Colonial Minister Johannes Bell finally went to France to sign the agreement. The agreement was signed on 28 June 1919 at the Palace of Versailles and ratified in the General Assembly Session on 9 July 1919.

Although it was signed, the Treaty of Versailles continued to be criticized by the German people. They continued to complain that it had been "dictated" to them and violated the spirit of fourteen Wilsson peace points. In addition to paying such compensation costs demand sacrifices that can destroy their economies.

In the years after it was ratified, the Versailles Agreement was revised and amended, much of this change favored by Germany. A number of concessions were made in Germany and in 1938 only the article on territorial settlements remained.

The Oil Industry in the Middle East of the 20th Century

The Middle East is a geographical center for the world oil industry. Oil is very important in foreign and domestic politics in almost every country in the region, oil importers and oil exporters. Therefore the oil industry in the Middle East has a special role in the economic development of the Middle East.

Discovery of the First Oil Field in the Middle East

The search for oil resources in the Middle East was first carried out by a British businessman named William D'Archy. In 1901, he was granted permission to explore oil in Iran, after offering a contract of 20,000 pounds sterling and 16% of profits for 60 years. Not only that, the company is also free of charge and obtained a large area.

After obtaining permission, D'Archy sent George Reynold to explore oil resources. Exploration requires huge costs, so that at one time when he was on the verge of bankruptcy, D'Arcy asked for help from the British government. The government agreed to help him, for fear that he might sell his permission to a foreign country like Russia.

England was still a big power at that time. Therefore, they want to maintain political existence in the Middle East. To protect the contract with the Qajar Dynasty, the British Government pressured the British oil company Burmah Oil to provide financial assistance to D'Arcy in 1905.

New investment from Burmah Oil Co. saved this project. However, over the next few years the situation has not changed, oil resources have not yet been discovered.

This fruitless search results in D'AArcy's personal wealth being completely used up. Even some oil source search staff were fired to reduce the budget needed.

Meanwhile, the British government and other financiers, seemed to be beginning to despair after seven years the project did not work. Therefore, on May 26, 1908 London sent an order to Reynold to carry out the last drilling effort around the Sulaiman Mosque with a depth of 1600 feet.

While drilling was underway, the smell of sulfur wafted in the air at Suleiman Mosque. That was a good sign for Reynolds. At 4 o'clock in the morning, the drill reaches 1,180 feet below the desert and touches where the oil is. As a result, oil sprayed as high as 75 feet into the air.

The place was so remote that it took five days before D'Arcy got word via telegram in England. "If this is true," he replied, "all our problems are over." The discovery is true and more other oil wells were found in Persia, including the discovery of a large oil well in September.

After that discovery, D'Arcy and Burmah reorganized their ownership in 1909 as Anglo-Persian Oil Co. (AIOC). Initial public offering of shares sold out in 30 minutes in London. The British government holds half of AIOC's shares, Burmah Oil 22%, and the rest is held by a joint pool of investors.

Since news of oil discoveries in the Middle East spread, large countries have been racing to find oil fields in the Middle East.

Development of the Oil Industry in the Middle East
The first exploration permits set patterns in this region for the next half century. The petroleum industry is a vertical and horizontal monopoly. Western companies control oil prospecting, sourcing, transporting, refining, and selling.

Seven large companies or so-called "The Seven Sisters" eventually dominated the oil industry in the Middle East. They are Standard Oil of New Jersey (founded by John Rockefeller), Royal Dutch Shell, British Petroleum, Gulf, Socony-Mobil, Texaco, and Standard Oil of California. Many of these companies have the same owner and director or at least one family.

On the other hand, the Middle East Government is too weak, does not have the technology to develop the industry itself, so voluntarily gives permission to Western companies to exploit their vital natural resources.

The second largest oil permit in the Middle East was signed between Iraq and a consortium of Western companies. Calouste Gulbenkian became a negotiator who negotiated the permit in return for a 5 percent stake. As a result of this agreement, Gulbenkian was nicknamed "Mr. Five Percent "and became one of the richest people in the world at that time.


The company's ownership is divided as follows: 25 percent owned by D'Arcy, consisting of Burmah and the British government which came to be known as British Petroleum (BP); 25 percent Compagnie Française des Petroles (CFP), where the French government owns 40 percent; 25 percent of Royal Dutch Shell, consisting of British and Dutch interests; and 25 percent U.S. gas, including Standard Oil of New Jersey and Socony Mobil.

These companies share the 5 percent payment for Gulbenkian equally among themselves. The contract includes exploration permits throughout Iraq for 75 years, does not allow taxation for companies, and revenues for oil-producing countries do not increase at prices set by oil companies.

The licensing model which is actually very detrimental to Middle Eastern countries continued to be applied during the 20th century.

Recorded in 1950, Middle Eastern oil field ownership is divided as follows: Anglo-Persian Oil Co. (AIOC) in Iran, Iraq and Mosul; Basra Petroleum companies (IPC) in Iraq; Arabian-American Oil Company (ARAMCO) in Saudi Arabia; Kuwait Oil Company in Kuwait; Bahrain Petroleum Company in Bahrain; and Petroleum Development Ltd. (IPC) in Qatar.

The Main Brain Behind the Holocaust Event

Heinrich Himmler is the main brain behind the genocide of thousands of Jews or better known as the Holocaust. He has enormous power as Reichsfuhrer-SS, chief of police and interior minister. This power placed him in the position of the second strongest person after Adolf Hitler. Himmler was not only the main brain of the Holocaust, but also the massacre of Gypsies, homosexuals, and Slavs.

Heinrich Himmler's Journey to Power

Himmler was born on October 7, 1900 in Munich, Germany to a mother named Anna Maria and Gebhard Himmler's father. His father was a Catholic school principal and teacher for the family of Wittelsbach's nobles. He has a rather thin posture and has a hobby of playing chess and collecting stamps. It can be said he is the antithesis of an ideal Aryan race.

Even so, Himmler had a dream since he was young to grow up and become a soldier. At the age of 17 he became a volunteer force and underwent training in Regensburg.

After World War I, Himmler met prospective Nazi members in Freikorps, Germany's right-wing paramilitary. From the beginning he liked the idea of ​​anti-Semitic Hitler and decided to join the German National-Socialist Workers' Party (Nazis) in 1925.

High loyalty, supported by administrative ability and assertiveness, led Himmler to be the head of Schutzstaffel (SS), Hitler's elite bodyguard and Nazi figures. As head of the SS, Himmler expanded the membership of the paramilitary organization to 50,000 people.

After Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Himmler formed an intelligence agency without a uniform, Sicherheitsdienst (Sd).

In 1934, he organized the Night of the Long Knives, an operation to eliminate Sturmabteiling (SA) figures, led by Ernst Rohm. After the assassination of SA figures, Himmler then began to build the SS into the most powerful armed body in Germany in addition to the armed forces. The Nazis used it to eliminate their rivals and force the German population to comply.

In 1936, when Nazi rule became increasingly absolute, Himmler controlled the German secret police (Gestapo).

Operation Genocide Heinrich Himmler
Towards World War II or in 1939, Himmler was appointed as the Commissioner of the German Race Consolidation tasked with eliminating inferior races from German territory. In carrying out his duties, he expanded the concentration camps by arresting opponents, inferior races, Slavic and Jewish people. Thousands of people were sent to concentration camps in Poland, as a result many were killed, starved, or died of illness.

In May 1940, Himmler presented Adolf Hitler with a plan of genocide against the Jews. The plan was the final solution to rid Jews of Europe. Hitler, who from the beginning was very hated by Jews, immediately agreed to the plan.

The success of the plan was even greater, after Himmler was delegated to form the SS Einsatzgruppen special assassination squad. The force was tasked with carrying out the killing of millions of Jews, Gypsies, and Communists. To make killing more efficient, Himmler ordered concentration camps equipped with poison gas chambers.

In 1941, Jews were deported to more modern killing camps. The modern camps include Bergen-Belsen, Auschwitz-Birkenau, Belzec and Treblinka.

The Bergen-Belsen camp can house more than 60,000 Jews, around 35,000 died of starvation, disease and biological experiments.

The most famous death camp is Auschwitz-Birkenau. This camp was built by Himmler in May 1940 and since 1942 there have been seven gas chambers. An estimated 2.5 million people were killed (about 2 million of whom were Jews, Poles, Gypsies and Russian prisoners of war. Of that total only around 200,000 survived.

It did not stop there, in June 1942 Himmler ordered the deportation of 100,000 Jews from France and agreed to a plan to transfer 30 million Slavs to Siberia. The following month Himmler ordered a total clearance of Jews from the Polish government.

End of Life Heinrich Himmler
After the success of the Holocaust plan, Himmler was appointed interior minister in 1943. His power grew after Hitler disbanded military intelligence (Abwehr) and made Him the leader of Sd as the only intelligence in Germany in 1944.

However, his great power did not last long, after the same year the Allies repulsed German troops and began to push in from the west. This event marked the failure of Himmler as Military Commander of the Vistula Army.


Himmler, aware of the impending defeat, began to destroy the evidence of the Holocaust. In April 1945, he also tried to negotiate peace with the Allies by offering to form an alliance to stem the Soviet Union.

As a result of this action, Hitler branded him a traitor and ordered to arrest him. On his escape he was captured by Allied forces, but before his trial he committed suicide by taking cyanide pills on May 23, 1945.

Roman Blood Gladiator

Gladiators are professional fighters who entertain viewers in violent and bloody confrontations in Ancient Rome. Although the Gladiators were taken from slaves, or criminals, but the Gladiators who were successful in battle received the same attention as celebrities today, so the ideals of being a Gladiator became a magnet for the lower classes of society.

The Origin of the Gladiatorial Fight

The gladiators originally appeared at the Etruscan cemetery (the person who first occupied Rome), as part of a ritual to provide bodyguards to people who have died. Therefore, the fight usually causes the fighters to die.

Meanwhile, Roman historian Titus Livius (Livy) said the gladiatorial battle was first held in 310 BC by the Campanians, in the context of celebrating the victory over the Samnites.

Undeniably, Rome adopted many Etruscan rituals. For example in 264 BC, when the family of M. Brutus seriously celebrated the funeral with a gladiatorial battle. From then on, funerals that were presented by gladiators became ordinary and large. Gladiatorial schools and types of battles were growing rapidly.

Gladiator Classes
There are various classes of gladiators that are distinguished by their battle equipment or models. In the hand to hand combat model there is a Samnite class that fights with national weapons - large shields, visors, feathered helmets, and short swords. Thraces that use small round bucklers and sickle-like daggers; they are generally pitted against mirmillone, who wear Gaul clothing with helmets, swords and shields. The name mirmillone is taken from the name of the fish that symbolizes their helmets.

There are also fighters who use horses, such as Andabatae who are believed to fight on horseback and wear helmets with closed visors - to fight with their eyes closed; dimachaeri ("man of two knives") who carry short swords in each hand; and essedarii who fought off trains like the ancient English.


In addition to fighting against fellow gladiators, gladiators sometimes also have to face wild animals like lions and fight criminals.

The Way of the Gladiator Fight
The signal for gladiatorial battles is marked by the sound of trumpets and those who show fear are driven into the arena with whips and hot iron. When a gladiator was injured, the audience shouted "Habet" (He was injured); if he is under enemy power, he will raise his index finger to beg for clemency from the people.

If the audience supports compassion, they wave their handkerchiefs, but if they want the death of a conquered gladiator, they turn their thumbs down. (This is a popular view; another view is that those who want the death of the defeated gladiator point their thumbs at their chest as a signal to stab him, and those who hope he will avoid turning their thumbs down as a signal to drop the sword.)

Development of the Gladiatorial Fight
The cruelty that must be accepted by the gladiators resulted in a revolution to oppose this show. In 73-71 BC, a gladiator named Spartacus led the slave revolution in southern Italy. He managed to obtain several victories over the Roman army, until finally stopped by Marcus Licinius Crassus

The development of the gladiators reached a peak at the end of the Republic, when the candidates held large performances for public pleasure and political influence, which culminated in the election of Julius Caesar as aedile in 65 BC.

He held a large-scale celebration, complete with more than 300 pairs of gladiators. From then on, the contest became an important part of imperial control of the Roman masses, satisfying the thirst of the Romans for action and releasing their frustration.

However, the gladiator is actually not a major part of the gambling (public games are held many times throughout the year in Rome). Instead, the battle was staged privately by powerful families. The authorities are expected to provide the same entertainment as the grandeur of their government.

The August Emperor (27 BC-14 AD) overhauled the gladiatorial grip which was previously part of a funeral ritual, becoming a sport of entertainment for people. This policy was then followed by his successor.

In 80 AD, Emperor Titus (79-81 AD) inaugurated the Colosseum with a series of elaborate ceremonies and gladiatorial performances that lasted for 100 days. The Colosseum itself is a circular arena where around 50,000-70,000 eyes witness the death battle.

One of the rulers known to be very fond of gladiatorial performances was Trajan (98-117 AD). He celebrated his victory in the Dacian War by presenting 5000 gladiators in the Colloseum. He really liked the show and his government was recorded because of the show.

Some authorities even participated in gladiatorial performances, such as Hadrian, Caligula and Commodus.

With the advent of Christianity, gladiatorial performances began to fall into disorder. Christians strongly oppose the show and even consider it part of a pagan ritual. Emperor Constantine I finally abolished the gladiatorial battle in 326 AD

But Constantine's policy did not immediately eliminate gladiators completely. Throughout the fourth century stricter laws were passed, until finally around 399 Honorius ordered the last gladiatorial school to be closed.

The History of the Berlin Wall

The Berlin Wall which was built in 1961 is a real symbol of the Cold War. This 28-mile long wall separates Soviet-controlled East Berlin and West Berlin supported by the Allies.

The border is heavily guarded, even around the walls lined with barbed wire and minefields.

With the construction of this wall Germany is automatically divided into two. East Germans who used to have jobs in West Germany or vice versa could not work in their previous place. Similarly, families who live on two different sides cannot meet.

Around 191 people died trying to cross into West Berlin and around 5,000 were more successful. The existence of the Berlin wall itself lasted for thirty years.

Background on the Construction of the Berlin Wall
After World War II ended, Germany fell into Allied and Soviet influence. The Allies established their influence in the western part of Germany, while the Soviet in the east.

In May 1949, the West German government was formed with the capital in Bonn. Meanwhile on October 7, 1949 the East German communist government was formed with the capital in East Berlin.

Entering May 1952, the border between the two territories was closed. Only the border between East and West Berlin is still open and is the only main gate for traffic from the two regions.

In the years between 1949 and 1961, around 2.5 million East Germans fled East Germany and entered the West, including an ever-increasing number of skilled, professional and intellectual workers. It is feared that their presence could destroy the economic survival of the East German state. On the other hand, the East German government is also worried about the entry of the understanding of capitalism from the West German region.

In response, East Germany established a barrier to close East Germany's access to West Germany. The barrier was first built on August 12-13, 1961, as a result of a decision issued on August 12 by East Germany Volkskammer.

The first original wall was built of barbed wire and cinder blocks, then replaced by a series of 5 meter high concrete walls topped with barbed wire and guarded by a watchtower, gun cannons and mines.

In the 1980s, the Berlin Wall was coated with electricity and extended 28 miles (45 km) across Berlin and then extended for another 120 km to separate East and West Germany.

The fall of the Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall symbolizes the Cold War in Western Europe. The separation between the two regions results in a huge gap in prosperity.

In general, the population of West Germany is more prosperous and free than the population of East Germany. As a result, the East Germans tried to cross the barrier.

About 5,000 East Germans succeeded in crossing the Berlin Wall (by various means) and reached West Berlin safely, while 5,000 others were captured by East German authorities and 191 others were killed during a breakthrough attempt.

A wave of democratization that struck eastern Europe, resulted in the fall of communist power in East Germany in October 1989. On November 9, 1989, when the Cold War began to subside in Eastern Europe, a spokesman for the East Berlin Communist Party announced the opening of the country's borders with West Germany (including West Berlin ).


The opening of the barrier was celebrated with joy by the German population. More than 2 million residents from East Berlin visit West Berlin in a week to celebrate the fall of the Berlin Wall.

With the opening of this wall East German residents can freely travel to West Germany. Then the wall ceased to function as a political barrier between East and West Germany until it was finally destroyed. West and East Germany itself finally officially united on October 3, 1990.

The Collapse of the Roman Empire

Rome is the largest empire ever known in Western Eurasia. For more than four hundred years the empire stretched from the Hadrian Wall to the Euphrates River. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire was a setback caused by the failure of the empire to establish its authority. The Roman Empire also lost the power that allowed it to exercise effective control. There are at least eight factors that caused the collapse of the Roman Empire.

Invasion of the Barbarians

The simplest theory for the collapse of Western Rome was the consequence of a series of ongoing military losses from outside attacks. Rome had been in conflict with German tribes for centuries, but in the 300s "barbarian" groups like the Goths began to try to disrupt the borders of the Empire.

The threat became more apparent after the Romans faced a German rebellion at the end of the 4th century AD The German tribal attack became increasingly after in 410 King Visigoth Alaric managed to pillage the city of Rome. The Empire spent the next several decades under constant threat from German tribes before the "Eternal City" was raided again in 455, this time by the Vandals.

Finally, in 476 AD the Germanic leader Odoacer launched a rebellion and overthrew Emperor Romulus Augustulus. Since that time, no Roman emperor has ruled again from Italy. The fall of Romulus led many to regard 476 as the end of the Western Roman Empire.

Economic problems and dependence on forced labor
When Rome was attacked by troops from outside, the empire also suffered an economic collapse due to a severe financial crisis. Continual warfare and excessive spending significantly erode government cash. This condition is exacerbated by oppressive taxes and inflation which widens the gap between rich and poor. In hopes of avoiding tax officials, many members of the wealthy class even fled to the countryside and established independent territories.

At the same time, the empire was shaken by a labor deficit. Keep in mind, Rome's economy depends on slaves to work on his fields and work as craftsmen. However, when the expansion stalled in the 2nd century, the supply of Roman slaves and other war treasures began to run low.

Another blow occurred in the 5th century, when the Vandals occupied North Africa and began disrupting imperial trade by wandering the Mediterranean as pirates. With a faltering economy and declining commercial and agricultural production, the empire began to lose its influence in Europe.

The Rise of the Eastern Roman Empire
The fate of Western Rome was largely determined at the end of the third century, when Emperor Diocletian divided the Empire into two parts - the Western Empire centered on the city of Milan and the Eastern Empire at Byzantium, which later became known as Constantinople. This division made the empire easier to regulate at first, but over time the two parts of the territory began to separate. The Eastern and Western Empires failed to work together to combat outside threats and both were often at odds over resources and military assistance.

As the gulf widened, the Eastern Empire, which was predominantly Greek, grew more prosperous while Latin-speaking Westerners entered into an economic crisis. More importantly, the strength of the Eastern Empire instead diverted the Barbarian invasion to the West.

Emperors like Constantin ensured that the city of Constantinople was fortified and well guarded, but Italy and the city of Rome - which only had symbolic value for many in the East - were left vulnerable. This Western political structure was finally destroyed in the fifth century, but the Eastern Empire lasted for a thousand years before being defeated by the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

Excessive Invasion and Overspending in the Military Field
At the height of its glory, the Roman Empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Euphrates River in the Middle East, however the splendor was also the beginning of its destruction.

With vast territories to govern, the empire faced administrative and logistical nightmares. Although they had a very good transportation system, the Romans could not communicate quickly or effectively enough to manage their territory.

Rome struggled to gather enough troops and resources to defend its borders from local uprisings and outside attacks. In the second century AD Emperor Hadrian was forced to build his famous wall in England only to keep the enemy at bay.

The large amount of funds channeled into the military maintenance of the empire did not necessarily make the empire survive, but instead caused the progress of Rome's technology and civil infrastructure to slow down until it finally fell into ruin.


Corruption and Political Instability
Difficulties in managing large areas are compounded by ineffective and inconsistent leadership. Becoming a Roman emperor has always been a very dangerous occupation, because it can never escape the coup attempt of his political opponents.

Civil war pushed the empire into chaos. More than 20 people tried to usurp the throne within a span of only 75 years, usually the change of authority occurred after the previous emperor was killed. Praetorian guards - the emperor's personal bodyguards - killed and installed new rulers as they pleased and even once auctioned the place to the highest bidder.

Political decay also extended to the Roman Senate which failed to quell the excesses of the emperors because of corruption and its inability to be a public secret. When the situation worsened, community pride diminished and many Roman citizens lost faith in their leaders.

The arrival of the Huns and the barbarians' migration
Barbarian attacks in Rome originated in part from mass migration caused by the invasion of Huns in Europe at the end of the fourth century. When the Eurasian soldiers raged in northern Europe, they drove many Germanic tribes to the borders of the Roman Empire.

The Romans reluctantly allowed members of the Visigoth tribe to cross south of the Danube and enter into the security of a safe Roman territory. But they also treated the Visigoths cruelly.

According to historian Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman officials even forced starving Goths to exchange their children for slavery in exchange for dog meat. It can be said that the Romans created dangerous enemies within their own borders.

When the oppression became more severe to bear, the Goths rose to revolt and eventually defeated Roman forces and killed Emperor Eastern Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD.

The Romans who were shocked at the event negotiated a fragile peace with the barbarians, but the truce ended in 410, when the Goth King Alaric moved west and pillaged Rome.

As the Western Empire weakened, Germanic tribes such as the Vandals and Saxons could move across the border and occupy Britain, Spain and North Africa.

The Rise of Christianity and the Loss of Traditional Values
Rome's decline was linked to the spread of Christianity and some argue that the emergence of a new faith helped contribute to the downfall of the empire. The Milan Decree legalized Christianity in 313 and then became the state religion in 380. These decrees ended centuries of persecution, but they might also erode the traditional Roman system of values.

Christianity replaced Roman polytheistic religion which saw the emperor as having divine status. Meanwhile, the pope and other church leaders are taking an increasing role in political affairs, which further complicates governance.

18th-century historian Edward Gibbon is the most famous supporter of this theory, but his views have since been widely criticized. While the spread of Christianity might play a small role in limiting Roman civil policy, most scholars now argue that the influence of Christianity is somewhat minor when compared to military, economic and administrative factors.

Weakening Roman Legion
For most of its history, the Roman military was one of the greatest powers in ancient times. But during the setbacks, the once mighty legions began to change.

Unable to recruit enough troops from Roman citizens, emperors such as Diocletian and Constantine began hiring foreign mercenaries to support their armies.

Rome's legions were eventually filled with German Goths and other barbarians. They were so numerous that Rome began to use the Latin word "barbarus" to refer to "soldiers."

These Germans were known as fierce warriors, but they had little or no loyalty to the empire. Even their power-hungry officers often turned against their Roman masters. The climax was when many barbarians who were previously joined in the legions looted the city of Rome and brought down the Western Empire forever.

History of Democracy

Democracy is derived from the Greek "democracy" which means people's government. Popular government is a government in which everyone has a voice about what needs to be done. The history of democracy itself is believed to have its roots in ancient Greece around two and a half millennia ago (around the sixth century BC).

Birth of Democracy
In Greece, Athens MP named Solon (around 630-560 BC) presented an early version of participatory democracy, which was mixed with elements of social justice.


It aims to correct government control that is exclusive and oppressive (oppressive). This desire arose because at that time wealthy landowners used their influence to exploit a severe economic crisis. They seized the wealth and freedom of the poor population.

Solon who was elected as chief judge in 594 BC then began to oppose the rulers. Reforms aimed at repairing flawed systems are carried out by limiting the absolute power of the upper classes.

In practice Solon limited the influence of the rich and introduced a more humane and balanced legal code. He also increased the role of the People's Assembly by creating Boule (multi-ethnic council of middle-income citizens), then limiting the authority of the Best Male aristocratic Council (Areopagus).

In 510 BC, Cleisthenes (around 570–507 BC) continued Solon's constitutional reorganization. He made the People's Assembly the only legislative body, increased the influence of Boule, seized the effective power of Areopagus, and ensured wide and deep participation in public life.

In Athens, the government allowed all free adult men who were citizens to vote, whether rich or poor. Unfortunately the system has flaws because it does not accommodate women's rights in politics.

When democracy began to function in Athens, many other city states chose to implement the system in their government. But the opportunity to vote is less than that imposed in Athens.

Most other city-states only allow adult male citizens to choose if they own land or own their own home (ie, rich people). They also don't let women choose.

One big problem for democracy in ancient times was the lack of time for men to always go to the meeting place to vote.

Most men have jobs, grow rice, make shoes, fight or whatever. They cannot always argue and choose. Therefore, finally some people were chosen who would carry out most of the voting (representative model) and the rest only came when there was a very important vote.

In Athens, people who are representatives of the people are chosen by lottery. The man who wins in the lottery has the right to sit on the Council of 500. Then he will serve for a year on the council.

Development of Democracy
Starting from Ancient Greece, then democracy spread to the region around the Mediterranean. However, democracy in this region was almost destroyed by the Roman Empire around 100 BC.

On the other hand, places like Athens continued to use democratic methods to make their own decisions on local matters for a long time after that.

A thousand years later, in the Middle Ages, several cities in Italy - Siena, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Venice - returned to democratic rule after Matilda of Canossa died. These democracies are all organized in slightly different ways, but none of them allows the poor, women, or children to vote, and some have a lottery system like Athens.

Farther north in England, some men had the right to elect local officials and their representatives in Parliament in the Middle Ages, but the king still held most of the power.

This Italian democracy, too, was finally conquered by the Holy Roman Empire and ruled by the German emperor.

Starting in the 1600s, people began to struggle to realize democracy again. In England, Cromwell seized power to form Parliament. In America, the Revolutionary War gave birth to the Constitution in 1789. The constitution allowed adults to choose freely if they owned their own agriculture or business.

A few years later, the French Revolution brought democracy to France (for a short time). In the early 1900s, democracy entered Spain - for a while. Even though countries that embraced democracy began to emerge, women's right to vote was still severely restricted.

Today many countries embrace a form of democracy. In the 20th century. most poor people, people of color, and women have won the right to vote, even though children and foreigners still cannot.

Even though countries that embrace democracy have mushroomed, the amount of power available to voters still varies from country to country and some Middle Eastern countries such as Saudi Arabia still have not implemented this system.